Check if any other possible class time. The project originally was planned to last 15 years, but effective resource and technological advances have accelerated the expected completion date to Several types of genome maps have already been completed, and a working draft of the entire human genome sequence was announced in June , with analyses published in February An important feature of this project is the federal government's long-standing dedication to the transfer of technology to the private sector.
By licensing technologies to private companies and awarding grants for innovative research, the project is catalyzing the multibillion-dollar U. It is the creation of complete, anatomically detailed, three-dimensional representations of the normal male and female human bodies. Acquisition of transverse CT, MR and cryosection images of representative male and female cadavers has been completed.
The male was sectioned at one millimeter intervals, the female at one-third of a millimeter intervals. Over time, they expect the site to become a comprehensive collection that will rival the best of traditional anatomy publications. The goal is to produce new digital capabilities providing a World Wide Web WWW based information management system in the form of interoperable databases, and associated data management tools. Tools would include, and are not limited to, graphical interfaces, querying and mining approaches, information retrieval, data analysis, visualization and manipulation, integrating tools for data analysis, biological modeling and simulation, and tools for electronic collaboration.
The Neuroscience database will be interoperable with other databases, such as genomic and protein databases, to create the capability to analyze functional interactions in greater depth. Tools will also need to be created to manage, integrate and share this resource via the WWW providing the capability for channels of communication and collaboration between geographically distinct sites.
These databases and tools will be used by neuroscientists, behavioral scientists, clinicians and educators, in their respective fields, to understand brain structure, function, and development across the many levels and areas of data collection and analysis.
The long-range goal is to understand and describe the human organism, its physiology and pathophysiology, and to use this understanding in improving human health. These three organizations exchange data on a daily basis. Gene expression: The conversion of the information encoded in a gene to messenger RNA which is in turn converted to protein. Genetic map Linkage Map : The linear order of genes on a chromosome of a species.
Genetic maps are created by observing the recombination of tagged genetic segments STSs during meiosis. The map shows the position of known genes and markers relative to each other, but does not show the specific physical points on the chromosomes. Genetic polymorphism: The occurrence of one or more different alleles at the same locus in a one percent or greater of a specific population.
Genome: The total genetic material of a given organism. Genomics: The mapping, sequencing, and analysis of an organism's genome. Genotyping: The use of markers to organize the genetic information found in individual DNA samples and to measure the variation between such samples. Haploid: A cell containing only one set of chromosomes.
Sequence and mapping target data from centers participating in the international consortium are submitted via the HGSI web site. This web site also presents an overview of HGP progress to the research community in tabular and graphic displays of the target data. Hidden Markov models HMM : A computer algorithm which locates the essential, unique features which can distinguish a protein or gene family by analyzing a range of known sequences from the family.
These features then are used to locate similar characteristics in unknown sequences. Homology modeling: The use of 3-dimensional 3-D geometry and sequence information from proteins of known 3-D structure to develop models for proteins whose 3-D structure is unknown. In the first step of homology modeling, search and alignment algorithms are used to find the best sequence overlap of the 'unknown' protein with the sequences of related proteins which have 3-D data.
In the second step, the geometry of the 3-D structures is used as a template for generating a 3-D structural model for the regions of high sequence homology in the unknown protein the conserved regions. Finally, the sections with low homology to known proteins the variable regions are modeled using a variety of computational techniques. Hybrides or hybride molecular complexes : The formation of a compliementary complex between a probe molecule and a target molecule.
This complex is generally tagged with a radioactive label on the probe molecule so that the complex can be located and isolated for further study. Since hybridization reactions are specific, they can be used to locate one DNA, RNA, or protein molecule within complex mixtures of similar molecules.
Hydrogen bond: A dipole-dipole attraction in which a hydrogen atom bridges two electronegative atoms. One half of the hydrogen bond is a covalent bond and the other is an electrostatic bond.
The example below shows the hydrogen bonds formed between cytosine and guanine. Induction: The switching of cells between pathways under the influence of an adjacent group of cells.
It is possible to generate several different cells through a series of inductions between a limited number of cell types. Intron: The portion of a DNA sequence which interrupts the protein coding sequences of the gene. Most introns begin with the nucleotides GT and end with the nucleotides AG.
In vitro: Outside a living organism, usually in a test tube. In vivo: Inside a living organism. Kilobase kb : A length of DNA equal to 1, nucleotides. Linkage analysis: The process used to study genotype variations between affected and healthy individuals wherein specific regions of the genome that may be inherited with, or "linked" to, disease are determined.
Linkage map: A map which displays the relative positions of genetic loci on a chromosome. Loci: The location of a gene or other marker on the surface of a chromosome. The use of locus is sometimes restricted to mean regions of DNA that are expressed.
MAP: Program developed by Huang which computes a multiple global alignment using an iterative pairwise method. Mapping: The process of determining the positions of genes and the distances between them on a chromosome.
There are three types of DNA maps: physical maps, genetic maps, and cytogenetic maps. The types of markers identified differentiate the map produced. Marker: A physical location on a chromosome which can be reliably monitored during replication and inheritance.
Microarray: DNA which has been anchored to a chip as an array of. The result will be a fluorescent signal indicating that the specific gene has been activated. Mitosis: Cell division - The process that produces daughter cells that are genetically identical to each other and to the parent cell.
Motifs: A pattern of DNA sequence that is similar for genes of similar function. Also a pattern for protein primary structure sequence motifs and tertiary structure that is the same across proteins of similar families. Multiple Alignment: A set of biosequences arranged in a table such that each row of the table consists of one sequence padded by gaps.
The columns of the table highlight similarity or residue conservation between positions of each biosequence. An Optimal Multiple Alignment is one that has the highest degree of similarity, or the lowest cost. Nucleotide nt : A molecule which contains three components: a sugar deoxyribose in DNA, ribose in RNA , a phosphate group, and a heterocyclic base. Oligos Oligonucleotides : A chain of nucleotides.
Oncogene: A mutant gene that promotes uncontrolled cell growth once activated. Operon: The group of contiguous genes in a bacterial chromosome that are transcribed into an mRNA molecule. Pairwise alignment: In the first step, two sequences are padded by gaps so that they are the same length and so that they display the maximum similarity on a residue to residue basis.
An optimal Pairwise Alignment is an alignment which has the maximum amount of similarity with the minimum number of residue 'substitutions'. PCR polymerase chain reaction; in vitro DNA amplification : The laboratory technique for duplicating or replicating DNA using the bacterium Thermus aquaticus, a heat stable bacterium from the hot springs of Yellowstone. As with the polymerase reaction that occurs in cells, there are three stages of a PCR process: separation of the DNA double helix, addition of the primer to the section of the DNA strand which is to be copies, and synthesis of the new DNA.
Since PCR is run in a single reaction vessel, the reactor contains all of the components necessary for replication: the target DNA, nucleotides, the primer, and the bacterial DNA polymerase. The process is repeated until the quantity of new DNA desired in obtained. The term PDB also defines a standard file format for publishing protein and nucleotide structures for use in computer programs.
Peptide: A small chain of amino acids see protein. Physical map: The physical locations and order on chromosomes of identifiable areas of DNA sequences such as restriction sites, genes, coding regions, etc.
Physical maps are used when searching for disease genes by positional cloning strategies and for DNA sequencing. PIMA: An alignment algorithm developed by Smith and Smith which performs multiple alignments using a covering pattern construction algorithm.
Plasmids are generally found in yeast and bacteria. Polymerase: The process of copying DNA in each chromosome during cell division. In the first step the two DNA chains of the double helix unwind and separate into separate strands.
Each strand then serves as a template for the DNA polymerase to make a copy of each strand starting at the 3' end of the chain. Polymorphic marker: A length of DNA that displays population-based variability so that its inheritance can be followed.
Polymorphism: Individual differences in DNA. Single nucleotide polymorphism the difference of one nucleotide in a DNA strand is currently of interest to a number of companies. Polypeptide: A linear chain of amino acids joined head to tail via a peptide bond between the carboxylic acid group of one amino acid and the amino group of the next amino acid.
An Introduction To Bioinformatics. See all formats and editions Hide other formats and editions. Bioinformatics Methods and Applications P. Read bioinformatics the machine learning approach adaptive computation and. Read bioinformatics the machine learning approach adaptive computation and Bioinformatics is a growing field that attracts researchers from many different backgrounds who are unfamiliar with the algorithms commonly used in the field.
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